The First Earl of Essex, Lord Great
Chamberlain, Governor of the Isle of Wight, Lord Privy Seal, Master of the
Rolls, Secretary of the State and Chancellor of the Exchequer are some of the
many titles that Thomas Cromwell (1485-1540), a common born man, earned for
himself. He appeared in the court of King Henry VIII as Cardinal Wolsey’s
apprentice. This time in England was of great discord. A marriage to Catherine
of Aragon for over twenty years had only produced one Tudor heir: Princess
Mary. Henry was troubled at the lack of a male heir and believed the root of
this problem was due to the fact that he married his brother’s wife after he
passed away. Henry now sought another marriage in hopes of producing a male
heir but he had to work around the Pope who refused to grant the annulment.
As
King Henry VIII’s chief minister, Cromwell ascended to his positions through
determination, eloquence, and intellect. His rise to favor in the royal court transpired
when he purposed the Protestant idea of the Pope not being superior to kings.
This feat attained the annulment of King Henry’s marriage to Queen Catharine of
Aragon and subsequently caused England to break away from the Church in Rome
and Henry to be head of the new English Church. As a result of this success,
Cromwell became the chief administrator for organizing the newly reformed
Church of England. From 1534 until his downfall in 1540, Cromwell would be
Henry’s main minister for nearly all matters. Cromwell was the most powerful
man in the realm, save the king. While it is evident Cromwell had vast
influence in England, it is not evident as to whether or not he used that
influence for the benefit of the realm, himself, or the king. Through an examination
of the dissolution of the monasteries, the reformed methods of preaching, the
fall of Anne Boleyn, and the king’s marriage to Anne of Cleves, I will argue that
Lord Cromwell used his power to advance both himself and his Protestant faith
while securing the souls of the English people.
Many historians have debated the extent
of Cromwell’s influence and for what purpose he used this influence. There are
two main portrayals of Cromwell: one, a just ruler who became a martyr, and
two, an ambitious and ruthless counselor to the king. Paul van Dyke notes the
origins of these portrayals; John Fox categorized Cromwell as a martyr while
Reginald Pole describes him as a “false counselor who helped the descent of a
once innocent and pious king into tyranny, crime, and irreligion by flattering
evil passions for his own gain.”[1]
While Pole’s Catholicism led to this biased description of Cromwell, some
historians have agreed with him in that Cromwell was indeed treacherous and
deceitful. Historian Ethan Shagan, remarked that Cromwell was a stark heretic
who ruled the king.[2] Contrarily, Charles
Carlton considers Cromwell as one of England’s greatest statesmen.[3] G.
R. Elton portrays Cromwell as a kind and caring, results-oriented minister who
sought to be remembered through history.[4]
Thomas Cromwell, as the king’s chief
minister, helped Henry VIII establish a Church of England independent from Rome
based upon a Lutheran reformation of the English Church. Carlton views Cromwell
as the “architect of the Reformation and the Tudor Revolution in government.”[5] G.
R. Elton also argues that the underlying Reformation ideas emerged from
Cromwell rather than the king and that those ideas embody his (Cromwell’s) view
of Church and State.[6] Elton claims that Cromwell was a devout man of
the gospel and that his religion leaned on Protestant ideas that were neither desperate
nor extremist but heavily emphasizing the supremacy of scripture.[7] Elton
also decrees that Cromwell was sincere and sought to better the commonweal of the
English.[8]
G.W. Bernard contends that Cromwell’s
intentions were to benefit the king and himself rather than the realm. Bernard
argues that the dissolution of monasteries, for Henry was a means emphasize
royal authority, while for Cromwell it was a means to further religious change.[9] Elton
agrees that there were economic incentives to the dissolution of monasteries,
but that it was also a central element of Lutheran reform[10] In
contrast to Carlton, Elton declares that neither Cromwell nor the king planned
on retaining all the seized properties for the crown.[11] Elton
believes the intentions behind the dissolution were Cromwell’s way of bringing
the commonwealth to the gospel based faith.[12]
In his article, “Thomas Cromwell’s Patronage
of Preaching”, Joseph Block argues that Cromwell’s control of preaching was a
major part of the ecclesiastical policy that created the Church of England, and
helped reform the ecclesiastical institutes and religious life of the
commonwealth. Cromwell vigorously
wielded his authority as a patron to fortify the voice of the government all
through the kingdom.[13] Elton enlightens us to Cromwell’s soft
approach to reorganizing the realm. He says Cromwell “preached moderation,
especially in innovation”[14]
and warned the bishops against preaching the new teachings too radically. Elton
describes Cromwell as less of a politician and more of a religious reformer.
While Elton describes Cromwell as a
religious reformer, it is evident within the reform of canon law but it also required
Cromwell to make political changes that enabled him to enforce the reforms; four
historians have addressed the discussion of Cromwell’s involvement in the fall
of Anne Boleyn. G. W. Bernard examines Cromwell’s reasons for the destruction
of Anne and notes the possibility of a dispute over foreign alliance between
the two; Anne favored a French alliance while Cromwell favored one with the
Holy Roman Empire.[15]
He also remarks that Cromwell not only brought Anne down, but also many members
of the King’s Privy Council even though there was little evidence the condemned
formed a coherent group.[16] E.W.
Ives is certain that “Cromwell’s involvement remains a mystery” because the
evidence from Chapuy’s letters is not sufficient enough to be determined as
factual evidence.[17]
Ives points out that there was “bad blood” between one of Anne’s accused
fornicators, William Brereton, and Cromwell which could give us an explanation
of why Brereton was accused. Ives also exposes the many political offices that Cromwell
gained from pulling Anne out of power.[18] Retha
M. Warnicke argues that Cromwell’s involvement with Anne’s fall was purely a
political move toward bettering England’s imperial relations since both the
King and Cromwell no longer favored King Francis, as Anne did.[19]
Elton provides another prospective reason for Cromwell’s involvement with
Anne’s fall. He argues that Cromwell
sought to eliminate the conservative faction at court – who were Catholics
committed to a French alliance. In the
process, Cromwell could better promote an imperial alliance and Lutheran
reform.[20]
Advocacy
of a German alliance prompted Cromwell to advocate Henry’s marriage to Anne of Cleves, sister of the
Duke of Cleves, after the death of Henry’s beloved Jane Seymour. Warnicke indicates
that Cromwell was not Anne of Cleve’s friend and the reason for favoring the
marriage was merely for the religious alliance. Cromwell sought to advance and
solidify his religious ideas.[21] Elton also agrees that Cromwell sought to
create a grand northern alliance against Rome.[22]
Ultimately, it appears Cromwell’s own passion
for religious reform and the needed alliances to advance this was the source of
his downfall. Thomas Cromwell was a self-made lord with immense influence in
the English realm. The fact that he controlled much of England is not
disputable, but his motives for his actions while in power are. Did Thomas
Cromwell use his power just to better himself? Yes, he did. Did he use it to
better the king? Yes, he did. Were his choices in favor for the realm? Occasionally,
yes they were. Was he a fair ruler or a corrupt tyrant? That is still open for
debate. Lord Cromwell used his power to elevate himself, strengthen the king’s
authority, and bring the English people to what he believed was the true faith.
Throughout this paper, there are three
discussion topics: the Cromwell that helped himself, the Cromwell that asserted
royal authority, and the Cromwell who was a reforming religious man. Each of
these topics will be dissected by examining the four main aspects previously
discussed within this paper: the reform and patronage of canon law, the
Dissolution of monasteries, fall of Anne Boleyn, and arranged marriage to Anne
of Cleves. By examining all of these, it is determinable that Cromwell was
indeed a just, ambitious, fair religious reformer.
Because of his successful endeavor in
annulling the marriage of Henry to Catherine of Aragon by creating a new
church, it is only right that Cromwell was appointed to reforming the canon law
in England. He assumed the posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.
These posts gave him immense power. It is typical of people in power to crave
more. He assumed these positions and performed well in order to gain more
promotions. He achieved the submission of the Clergy in May of 1532 and promised
“in verbo sacerdotii” that the clergy
would no longer attempt or create any canons or ordinances without leave of the
king or his chief minister.[23] Other various reforms and
proclamations were announced following this achievement which ordained that the
clergy do submit to the new religious and not catholic rule of the Church in
England. The royal proclamation “Enforcing Statutes Abolishing Papal Authority
in England” was decreed in June 1535 which declares that the clergy of the
realm have indeed agreed with the new reforms and renounced their ties with the
Bishop in Rome. The end of this proclamation ends with a promise to the people
of England that if they disobey and reject the king as their head of the
church, they will be made and example of and punished by the just and lawful
king.[24] With
the official submission and proclamation to the people, Cromwell and Henry
began the Dissolution of monasteries.
Cromwell was charged with the Dissolution
of the monasteries to bring in more revenue. Cromwell transformed Royal
supremacy into Parliamentary terms, causing Church lands to be property of the
King, which in turn included the removal of many medieval features of central
government. The Dissolution of monasteries was a display of power and an action
to dispose of the Catholic clergy along with their wealth and power. If
Cromwell achieved this for Henry, it would indeed impress the king, pushing
Cromwell higher into favor. With more favor, came more responsibility. Cromwell
was now charged with patronizing the preachers so they only preached what they
were supposed to preach.
Even before Cromwell sought out to
patronize the preachers, he was known to them. In a letter from Sir John
Barkar, a priest, to Cromwell in 1531, the priest begs Cromwell for favor and
offers him the price of a gelding for his assistance.[25]
Later, during the final part of the Dissolution (January 1536), Thomas Prior of
Christchurch in Canterbury wrote to Cromwell in thanks for restoring his
brother as warden of their manors and that they have granted Cromwell as
annuity of ten and if that is not what Cromwell wants, he may change it.[26]
This letter is proof that Cromwell had power with the clergy of the realm. They
have submitted to Cromwell and realize that he has the power to do what he
wishes, so they may as well submit and let Cromwell know he can change the
annuity if he wishes. On the 6th of January 1536, Roland Lee, Bishop
of Coventry and Lichfield wrote to Cromwell pleading for Cromwell’s help and
permission to hang twenty unlawful men.[27]
This is evidence that Cromwell had immense control, power, and respect of many
of the clergymen in the realm. They sought to please him, get advice from them,
and get permission from him to do things in the realm.
Because the much of the clergy respected
Cromwell, he could use their respect to his advantage. In his letter to the
Bishop of Llandaff, he writes explaining that the “people may be taught the
truth, and not charged at first with overmany novelties... and remove out of
their hearts the corrupt teachings of the bishop of Rome.”[28]
This letter is very blunt in showing that Cromwell patronized preaching and
made the clergy preach what he approved.
The parliamentary proclamations show
Cromwell’s patronage of preaching and also the amount of power that Cromwell was
gaining through them. His success is passing this proclamation in November of
1538 degreed there is to be no unlicensed printing of religious documents,
Anabaptists could no longer be exiled, and St Thomas a Becket from the
calendar.[29] This was a large feat in
religious reform, which brought with it great success for Cromwell. After he
wrote these laws, but right before they were passed, he was appointed to
approve the new translation of the bible that would become known as the Great
Bible and placed within every church.[30] This
was one of Cromwell’s last great achievements before his downfall in 1540.
With one achievement after another,
Cromwell gained power, reputation, and wealth. His great achievements in reform
allowed him to become a great lord and without them, he may not have rose as
high as he did. He used the reform to elevate himself. The letters from various
clergy prove that Cromwell had power in the realm and that power was exercised
in his reply to the Bishop of Llandaff. He not only used the Dissolution of
monasteries and reform of canon law to elevate himself, for he also seized the
opportunity when the king asked him to dispose of Anne Boleyn.
Allied together, Cromwell and Anne climbed the
courtly ladder, obtaining influence and the king’s trust. Because Cromwell
secured Henry’s annulment to Queen Catherine, Henry was free to marry Anne. In
time, Anne’s relationship, with both the King and Cromwell, turned sour. Imperial
ambassador, Eustace Chapuys’ letters to Charles V divulge that he, Cromwell,
and others used several means to promote the matter of exposing Anne’s
disgrace.[31] Cromwell’s involvement is
also evident in his letter to Gardiner and Wallop five days before Anne’s
execution. In this letter he explains the exposure of Anne’s dirty lifestyle
and his certainty that she and her brother will be found guilty. This letter is
also evidence of the rewards to those who assisted in her downfall. Gardiner
and Wallop are both receiving a large sum of money as well as Sir Francis
Brian. Cromwell is essentially paying them off for helping him defeat the
queen.
Chapuys’ letters describe the manner of
the fall of Anne and what it meant to Henry. Rejoicing, feasting, and marrying
Jane Seymour, was how Chapuy’s described the event.[32] Because
Henry was so pleased with his new marriage, he wanted to thank Cromwell for the
successful disposal of Anne. Cromwell gained personal advantage through the
fall of Anne and the accused men of the privy chamber. Anne’s fall, intended or
not, created a more powerful Cromwell. After her fall, he succeed her father,
who had also fallen out of grace, as the first Earl of Wiltshire. He had also
gained the titles of Lord Privy Seal, gave up the title of Master of the Rolls,
and was raised, in yet another way, as a baron. Upon Anne’s death, he is now
referred to as Baron Cromwell of Wimbledon, First Early of Wiltshire, Lord
Privy Seal, as well as the other titles that he had acquired before his death.
Because of the titles he received it is evident that Anne’s death created a
strong Cromwell. It elevated him, which is why he brought down not only her,
but her brother, father, and other men of the chamber as well. He gained their
titles after they, too, had fallen out of grace with the king.
Cromwell’s involvement in the
arrangement of the marriage of Henry to Anne of Cleves was very prominent. In
his letters, he writes to Christopher Mont and Thomas Paynell charging them
with the duty of delivering messages to the Duke of Cleves.[33]
His is in charge of this matter and it is not disputable. The failure of the
marriage of Henry to Anne of Cleves is seen as Cromwell reaching too far for
himself and his religious reforms. Although, during the first few months of the
marriage, while it was still successful, Cromwell was appointed as Great
Chamberlain of England, Earl of Essex.[34]
This initial success aided Cromwell, yet again, and had him promoted to the
highest status in England, save the king. Many historians debate whether or not
it was the failure of this marriage that was Cromwell’s ultimate demise.
Warnicke blames Cromwell’s fall and execution on the fact that he exposed the
king’s sexual problems to the lord chamberlain and, indirectly, Anne herself.[35] Elton states that
Cromwell’s downfall came not from the mistake of arranging this marriage, but
from the exposure of many other things he had done wrong.[36]
The marriage did ultimately fail and create a domino effect that allowed
Cromwell’s enemies to expose him of high treason and heresy, causing him to
lose his head.
Whether all this evidence was intended
to create a more powerful, self-risen Cromwell, it did. After Cromwell’s
success in gaining revenue with the Dissolution and reform of canon law, he was
appointed to approve the new translation of the Great Bible and titled
vice-gerent in spirituals and vicar-general. The fall of Anne Boleyn created
three new, prestigious titles for Cromwell: Baron of Wimbledon, Earl of
Wiltshire and Lord Privy Seal. Finally, the achievement of arranging the
marriage to Anne of Cleves and Protestant alliance that came with the marriage,
he was awarded the titles Great Chamberlain of England and Earl of Essex. These
titles proved the Cromwell was elevated by his success in all of these matters
and he did not accept the titles and pay to appease others. It brought his
family wealth, land, and respect, for a time.
Thomas Cromwell was a loyal servant of
King Henry. He aided Henry in all matters, especially in asserting royal
authority. Henry was a king that required the attention and respect of all the
great kings in history. Cromwell helped him achieve this goal through his
reforms, the Dissolution, fall of Anne Boleyn and marriage to Anne of Cleves.
If anything, the
Dissolution of monasteries and reform of canon law was an assertion of royal
authority. With the submission of the clergy,[37]
Henry’s royal authority was higher than any king before him. Because Cromwell
was the chief minister in getting the clergy to submit, he is responsible for
this assertion of authority. Later that year, Cromwell called a parliament and
passed the Treasons Act of 1534.[38]
Within the act he truly asserted and defined royal supremacy.
“if any person or persons…do
maliciously wish, will or desire by words or writing, or by craft imagine,
invent, practise, or attempt any bodily harm to be done or committed to the
king's most royal person, the queen's or the heirs apparent [Elizabeth], or to
deprive them of any of their dignity, title or name of their royal estates, or
slanderously and maliciously publish and pronounce, by express writing or
words, that the king should be heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper
of the crown.”[39]
This act stated royal supremacy and decreed that
anyone speaking out against the king, queen, or heir in any sort of way would
be found guilty of treason. Cromwell truly affirmed the king’s absolute authority
and supremacy that cannot be spoken against because of this act.
The Dissolution, too, was a mighty show
of strength. Cromwell brought forth much revenue for Henry to fund his
passions: wars and new buildings. Not only was the Dissolution a show of
strength and authority, but the reaction to the rebels who opposed the
Dissolution. Henry’s authority and command crushed them. Because Cromwell was
the vice-gerent of spirituals, it was his duty to get the canon law reformed
and make sure the preachers preach what was approved by the king. Through these spiritual affairs, Cromwell not
only gained for himself political power and respect, but he also elevated and
exposed Henry’s royal authority in the realm.
Through the Dissolution, the king’s
coffer grew exponentially. In Chapuy’s letter to the Emperor, he explains to
the Emperor that the king and council are suppressing over 300 churches that
should “bring in revenue of 120,000 ducats. The silver plate, chalices, and
reliquaries, the church ornaments, bells, lead from the roofs, cattle, and
furniture belonging to them” will all come to the king.[40] Cromwell
succeeded in gaining much wealth for Henry, which allowed Henry to live a
lavish lifestyle that a king should live. Although, because the money from the
Dissolution went to the king’s coffer rather than education and charity, as
Henry’s new Queen, Anne, caused a conflict between the king, his minister, and
the herself.
Anne Boleyn reached too far, had
humiliated Henry in multiple ways and was about to become a hopeless cause. After
Anne Boleyn fell out of grace with the king, Cromwell was appointed to dispose
of her. The power that the king bestowed upon Cromwell to perform this action
was immense. He charged Cromwell with proving to the country and world that the
king can do as he pleases. He will destroy anyone who does not satisfy him.
Chapuys’ letters describe the manner of the fall of Anne and what it meant to
Henry. Immediately, the king feasts and rejoices and only a few months later,
officially marries Lady Jane Seymour. He is rejoicing because he and his family
have “escaped the hands of that accursed whore, who had determined to poison
them.”[41]
Through his success in disposing of Anne, Cromwell showed everyone the power of
the king. This power extended with the arrangement of a new royal wedding a few
years later.
In 1539, King Henry VIII was now working
on getting his fourth wife. It was Cromwell’s duty to find a suitable, royal
match. Henry had tired of non-royals for wives and wished to find a wife that
was. Anne of Cleves was Cromwell’s chosen candidate after two French women
declined the offer. Upon Anne’s arrival to England, the King, according to
Chapuys did not show any evident distaste or annoyance with the future queen.
He depicts their wedding as a lush and lavish affair with “gowns of rich clothe
of silver adorned with stones and pearls.”[42]
The wedding itself spoke of the king’s wealth and naturally, Cromwell had to
have planned it. Because the king chose to marry a woman who is over royal
birth, it shows that the king is not a ditz or lustful man. He is not seeking
for his own pleasure but for the pleasure of his realm’s peace and prosperity. Cromwell
chose a royal alliance to elevate the king highness’s reputation in the realm
and rest of Christendom.
Through all of his actions, Cromwell
elevated and assisted the King Henry in many ways. He took charge of the newly
reformed church canons, made sure the preachers preached what was approved to be
preached, and asserted authority in the Dissolution of monasteries. These
actions proved that Henry’s power in England was immense and that he intended
to reform the church for not only personal reasons, but religious reasons as
well. Cromwell covered Henry’s tracks in the reformation as well as in his
displeasure with Anne Boleyn. Her downfall allowed the world to see the power
that Henry had. That power extended yet again when Cromwell assisted Henry in
finding a royal bride. While Thomas Cromwell aided the king profoundly and
helped him create a powerful reputation in England and Europe, he also extended
his arm to reform the religious law in England.
Above all things, Cromwell was a
religious reformer. He may have been ambitious and helpful to the king, but his
main purpose was religious reform. It is indisputable that Cromwell was a
reformer. His reform of canon law and patronage of preachers is obvious proof
of his reforms. He used the power Henry gave him to reform in protestant and nearly
Lutheran ways. With the Submission of the Clergy in 1532, Cromwell was able to
instate and regulate all of the reforms in the Church of England. He enforced
this submission with the Treasons Act of 1534.[43]
As Vicegerent and Vicar-General, Cromwell had the power to reform.
Cromwell started his process by
investigating the monasteries in accordance with the Acts of Parliament. He
sent envoys to “inquire into their condition both in spiritual and temporal
matters.”[44] When they returned with
news of misbehavior Cromwell removed and punished them accordingly. And so
began this Dissolution of monasteries. The Dissolution of monasteries was
started to eliminate prevalent corruption and inactivity of reformation. Cromwell
asserted the power of the king and the power the king gave him in order to make
sure the protestant reformation in England prevailed. The Ten Articles written
in 1536 defined the new religion the country would live by under the new
supreme head of the Church, the king.[45]
With his new articles in tow, Cromwell proceeded in establishing the
parliamentary acts. The Act Suppressing the Smaller Monasteries in 1536
suppressed all the small monasteries and ordered that the monks live a more
humble life, accept and teach the supremacy of the king, and repudiation of
papal claims. Overall, through the Dissolution and the reforms, Cromwell
asserted his power in order to gain reform within the realm, dispose of bad
clergy and instate policies that he approved of. One thing he eventually did
not approve of was Anne Boleyn.
Anne began to interfere with Cromwell’s
plans for reformation and revenue. Her dissatisfaction with him lead her to
request her chaplain to give a sermon preaching against the kind’s ministers
and council.[46] He warned the council on
giving the king advice in altering ancient things and ceremonies, among other
things against the council. A month and some days later, Anne was dead.
Cromwell could not afford for people to speak out against him or his reforms.
He got rid of her and continued on reforming as usual and officially publishing
The Ten Articles. After Anne’s death he proceeded with the Dissolution, reforms
and finding a new wife for the King.
It was two years after the death of the
beloved Jane Seymour that Henry agreed to Cromwell’s suggestion to marry again.
A royal match would be best suited for this marriage which followed two rather
unsuccessful non-royal ones. Cromwell hoped the alliance with the Lutheran German
princes would secure a protestant religious alliance as well. The treaty defined
the marriage and alliance between England and the duchy of Cleves and promised the
safe arrival of the Lady Anne, as well as her dowry provisions.[47]
While this would have been a safe political and religious alliance for
Cromwell, it ended six months after it was created. The end of the marriage was
not hostile, for the Lady Anne humbly submitted to the king’s request for a
divorce. Her response letter was gracious and understanding, yet appropriately
disappointed.[48] Because of her response
and the easy divorce, it is curious as to why some historians blame this failed
marriage for Cromwell’s death. While it may or may not have been the cause, it
was indeed enacted to retrieve a protestant alliance for England that would
secure Cromwell’s reform’s, elevate him higher and assert royal authority.
As
Henry VIII of England’s chief minister in all matters from 1532 until 1540, Thomas
Cromwell reformed the English Church, destroyed English monastic life, assisted
in the execution of Anne Boleyn, and arraigned a royal failed marriage to Anne
of Cleves. All of these events created a minister that England had never seen
before. He was a powerful, self-risen, authority proving, religious reformer.
He was no more a power hungry, selfish man than he was a royal brown nosing,
religious tyrant. The significance of this finding is to clarify the man behind
the names. Many believe Cromwell was a heretic, a tyrant, a selfish, horrible
person, a terrible minister, or any of these more than the other, but in truth,
he was merely a fantastic minister who did work for himself, his realm, and his
religion.
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