"How did Napoleon use
propaganda during his campaign and reign to influence and gain support from
the people of France?"
In 1804,
France obtained an Emperor. Napoleon Bonaparte pushed his way from being a commissioned
second lieutenant to the Emperor of France within 20 years. Without the use of
propaganda this could not have been possible. “Propaganda is the deliberate,
systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct
behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the
propagandist”.[1] By
many historians, Napoleon is considered one of history’s best propagandists. Because
he knew the importance of influence over the armies and people of France he was
very concerned about the construction and projection of particular images of
his rule.[2].
Once he seized power in 1804, Napoleon showed an inflexible instinct to
regulate publications and to censor any opposition.[3]
But it was truly before 1804 that he discovered that propaganda was necessary. Napoleon
Bonaparte used propaganda during his campaign and reign of France to influence
and gain support for the armies and people of France in many ways. The main forms of propaganda that will be
discussed in this essay include the newspapers and books, political military
documents and bulletins, commissioning and sponsoring of art through theatre,
paintings, and writers, and promoting his self image all over France. It will
also discuss whether or not this is propaganda, and the lasting effects of the
propaganda. Napoleon’s propaganda techniques were strong, thorough and left
behind a legacy that would be remembered well after his life.
The
Napoleonic legend was not born on the throne in Paris, but on the lush planes
of Lombardi Italy.[4]
During his Italian campaign, Napoleon learned the importance of censorship,
good morale, and support from home. Some of Napoleon’s greatest propaganda
techniques developed while he was at war. Famous victories could be turned into
great propaganda via military bulletins. He quickly learned to play up his
victories and play down his defeats in the bulletins and newspapers from the
front. [5]
The Courrier de l’Armee d’Italie was
a newspaper he created for his troops as well as the people back in France to
read. He emerged from his campaign with the realization that his personal
charisma could flip the outcome of the battle as effectively as his strategic
and tactical skills.[6]
Since he never shied away from controlling the press, we can see that he
understood the power of the press both for rallying his troops and for
influencing the public opinion in France.[7]
Napoleon
knew his roots were with the army, soldiers and officers alike, but he did not
forget to target the people of France during his propaganda campaign. Along
with making his own military newspapers, he shut down 64 of 73 newspapers in
France and started censoring all the
future publications. He quickly learned to exploit the power of the press to
his advantage as a political weapon and devise new propaganda techniques.[8]
He sought to manipulate the press to his own ends. He was convinced that
newspapers should serve the interests of the government.[9]
In Decree limiting Parisian and
Provincial Newspapers (17 January 1800) Napoleon outlines the new rules: the
minister of general police will…only allow the printing, publication and
distribution of the (13) newspapers, report immediately on all the newspapers
published in other departments, ensure that no newspaper is published
simultaneously in the department of the Seine or Republic, the owners and
editors of newspapers retained after the present decree will present themselves
to the minster of residence to provide their proof of virtue as French
citizens, their place of residence and personal signatures and their loyalty to
the constitution. And lastly, all newspapers which include artless
disrespectful towards the social order will be suppressed![10]
Napoleon stated that he would never “allow the papers to say or do anything
contrary to my (his) interests” and he did exactly that. He monitored and
closed down all opposition, leading everyone to only read what he has approved
for them to read. [11]
Napoleon also
spent a lot of time sponsoring and commissioning art in France. Everything he
did with art was to prove his imperial power and make people respect it. He had
intentions to make Paris an artistic capital of the world. During his military
campaigns he would bring back artifacts, paintings, and relics from all over
the world and put them in the newly repurposed Louvre. [12]
Napoleon spent an average of 16,000 pounds year on pictures and sculptures. [13]
Having the best art is part of being on top. Having a large variety of
classical and renaissance art symbolized the civility and knowledge of the
French. He sought to prove that he was indeed the Emperor of France, a great a
powerful Empire, and he has ultimate power.
Because
Napoleon understood that theatre had great potential to draw people in, he paid
particular attention to it. He sponsored the Opera and controlled what shows
were put on. By sponsoring the big theatres, it put the small boulevard ones
out of business and unable to make plays that did not elevate him. He would use
the theatre to glorify himself by putting subtle hints into the old classical
plays. He banned certain plays that might remind the people of their former
king.[14]
Napoleon tried to control and monitor every aspect of life for his subjects,
shaping their thoughts and opinions to his favor.
Cartoonists,
poets, and novelists were also subject to Napoleon’s propaganda project. He
encouraged and commissioned cartoonists to direct their jests at the enemies,
mostly England.[15]
He imposed the ‘Direction General de I’imprimerie et de la Librarie’ which requested
all artists and writers to start creating works that would glorify his rule. He
required all the authors to submit two copies of their works to checked before
their publication. He also imposed like demands on posters and lectures.
Napoleon did not want one book to go on a shelf without it being read and
approved by selected officials. All literature was monitored and catered to
venerate him. The histories of his battles and campaigns were also rewritten.
He had it rewritten to, naturally, make himself look better. He said “History
is a myth which people choose to believe.” To the population, if it was in a
history book, then it must be true.[16]
This is a great example of his
manipulation over the population of France.
Napoleon’s
image appeared all over the empire. His face appeared on everything from coins
to pamphlets. His portrait became well known, along with his abundant eagles
and iconic “N” logo. The image that was produce with his portraits and eagles
highly resembled Roman Caesars, giving the impression of him being as our
ancient predecessors in Rome.[17]
One of the
most well-known forms of Napoleonic propaganda is the paintings. Napoleon made
sure all of the important imperial moments of his reign were documented on
canvas. His royal wedding to Marie Lousie, the birth of his heir, and
outstanding victories at war were all commissioned to be created by the best
artists around.[18]
Napoleon exploited
many handpicked artists to do his art works. Andrea Appiani was a Milan painter
known for his frescos and was the first to paint the official portrait of
Napoleon. Napoleon used him to paint several other official paintings and
eventually named him “first painter” of the Kingdom of Italy. Antoine-Jean Gros
was discovered by Napoleon’s wife Josephine and was commissioned to depict the
victories at the Bridge of Acole and the Battle of Lodi. Napoleon did not, in
fact, hold the Bridge at Acole, so having Gros paint the victorious image to
make himself look triumphant was not entirely true. Once again, this is an
example of how Napoleon manipulated the truth for his audience. Antonio Canova
was a treasured sculptor of Napoleon’s. He was responsible for creating the
busts and Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker statue which depict him in a powerful
Romanesque light.[19]
The artist
Jacques Louis David was appointed as the chief visual propagandist for Napoleon
and was depended on for providing
paintings and statues of Napoleon in the style of the Roman Caesars.[20]
David not only painted and sculpted for Napoleon, he also designed his clothes
and hairstyles that we have come to recognize in our time. The style that David
used created a realist visual that the middle class could relate to.[21]
Because his success made the government and Napoleon realize that art truly can
be propaganda for his rule, Jacques Louis David was named the “Painter of the
Government”.[22]
The Consecration of the Emperor Napoleon I and
Coronation of the Empress Josephine (1805-07) is one of the most well known
pieces of Napoleonic propaganda. This oil on canvas painting created the idea
of imperial propaganda. It was not only the painting that was propaganda but
also the action of Napoleon taking the crown and crowning himself symbolized
and showed everyone that he was a self-made Emperor and he owed allegiance to
no one.[23]
This painting does not entirely depict the event accurately. David initially
had Pope Pius VII sitting quietly with his right hand upon his knee but
Napoleon insisted he have his right hand raised, as if conferring his blessing
on the Empress as she was crowned by her imperial husband. He wanted everyone
to think or know that the Pope gave his blessing to the new Emperor and
Empress. David also added Napoleon’s mother to the painting, although she was
not actually present.[24]
Napoleon
left a legacy in France and Europe. The Napoleonic Code, French international
administrative system, the national banking system, military academies and
universities, as well as a glorious French symbol are still apparent and used
in France today.[25]
In their
book, Jowett and O’Donnell discuss a 10-step plan of analysis that incorporates
the major elements of propaganda. Napoleon, like all other propagandists can be
analyzed via this plan. The plan overall asks: “to what ends, in the context of
the times, does a propaganda agent, working through an organization, reach an
audience through the media while using special symbols to get a desired
reaction? …if there is opposition to the propaganda, what form does it take?...
how successful is the propaganda in achieving its purpose?”[26]
The ideology
and purpose of the Napoleonic propaganda campaign is to have the people of
France favor Napoleon, and not reject him. The first controlling propagandist action
that Napoleon did was censor the newspapers because while he was in Italy some
of the papers were making him look bad. Napoleon’s future goals and objectives
required him to have the people of France adore him, and propaganda was the way
to achieve that first step.
The context
in which the propaganda occurs is also very important for Napoleon. He had to
be very careful not to sway towards anything like Robespierre and the Terror,
or anything like the previous Kings of France. Since this was not long after
the heat of the French Revolution, France was tired, longing for solidity in
their government. Napoleon saw the opportunity and seized it. The
Identification of the propagandist was not concealed. Napoleon made his power
and origins of his propaganda known.
The structure of the propaganda organization
goes back to Napoleon himself as the apparent leader. Although, Napoleon could
not have written every article, bulletin, play, song or cartoon that was
published in his favor. He hired writers and gave them the tasks at hand.
Jacques Louis David is a great example of one of Napoleon’s members of his
propaganda organization.
The audience
of the propaganda campaigns is also very important. The target audience for
Napoleon’s propaganda varied per the propaganda. The bulletins were aimed at
his army while the newspapers, plays and arts were aimed at the people. The
army was targeted because without good morale of his army, Napoleon would not
have had as many victories. He said, “In war, morale counts for three quarters,
the balance of material force only makes up the remaining quarter.”[27]
The French population as a whole was also targeted because without the support
of the people, he could end up like the late royal family.
In the early
19th century the main media was newspapers and arts. Napoleon
successfully used all the modern means of media for his propaganda campaign.
The reaction that Napoleon was looking for when he utilized all means of media
in France was for the French people to know who he was no matter the lifestyle they
lead. If you were poor, bourgeois, or upper class, you would know who Napoleon
Bonaparte was. Coins, posters, newspapers, plays, poems, portraits, dinner
plates, pillows with an “N” on it; you name it, Napoleon had something with his
face, eagle or logo on it.
The special
techniques to maximize effect for Napoleon’s propaganda would be the depth of
his knowledge of the people. He knew the people and the soldiers; their wants,
tendencies, and needs. He catered his propaganda to the population of his time.
Napoleon also utilized strong symbols of power. The eagle and Romanesque
portraits both represent Napoleon as a Roman Caesar, which is one of the
greatest empires in history. Napoleon also used certain language styles to
appeal to certain groups of people. He used words like “savoir” and “pacifier”
to relate to historical and religious vocabularies.[28]
The audience’s
reaction to the various techniques Napoleon used can be assessed by looking at
the admiration for him overall. He could not really be critiqued openly since
his propaganda was so controlling, so what we see is an overwhelming joy of his
reign. Since the victors write history for the books, of course we will see
Napoleon as a wonderful leader, who did marvelous things for France, but not
everyone necessarily felt that way. The great French historian, Michelet, was 6
years old when Napoleon was crowned Emperor of France. He recalled from that
day “nothing out of the ordinary except a mournful and dismissal silence”.[29]
As far as historiography goes for Napoleon, the main sources of his history are
from himself, in his memoirs from St. Helena and the histories that he had
‘rewritten’ during his propaganda escapade. After his death however, the
reactions to him and his propaganda was more prevalent as many books were
published either bashing him or praising his accomplishments. The primary
sources from his time are biased to him, while the sources after him take the
facts out of the primary, and put them into a new context of words. The
audience of Napoleon’s propaganda reacted strongly, and for a long time even
after his death.
When
Napoleon’s name first became known, there was counterpropaganda and
anti-Napoleon newspaper articles, posters and cartoons. Once Napoleon found out
about those articles or people, he swiftly disposed of them. That is when he
started censoring everything from articles to books. He did not take lightly to
people who opposed him and that is very clear. In other countries, however,
there was naturally anti-Napoleonic propaganda plastered around. As the fear of
the Napoleonic invasion to Britain started spreading, the British started
producing Anti-Napoleonic propaganda.
The first poster that was published in 1798 and said, "Liberty,
Atheism, Blasphemy, Invasion, Requisitions, Plunder, Beggary, Murder,
Destruction, Anarchy, and Slavery". [30]
Other forms of anti-Napoleonic propaganda can be seen in the Vendee Territory.
In this territory, the people were loyal to the crown of France, and did not
like Napoleon at all. They rebelled. Their insignia was a heart with a cross
protruding from the top with the words “Dieu Le Roi”, or “God the King”.[31] Not everyone loved Napoleon, but a fair share
of French countrymen did.
The last
step on the 10 step plan is to evaluate the effects of the propaganda. Was
Napoleon’s propaganda a success? With the evidence that I have found, I would
say overall, yes. Since the people of France, in general, like him and
supported him, his propaganda was mostly successful. Napoleon was loved by his
people. When he was passing through the Alps, peasants from all around came to
see him through and cheer him on, as they would again in 1815. The people of
Lyon shuffled around his hotel to just catch a glimpse of him. Actors and
writers went off and created a play called “Le Heros de Retour” in his honor.[32]
Napoleon kept much his popularity after his first exile. The Napoleonic
merchandise like plates, card decks, broadsheets and statuettes kept circulation.
People would publish articles or posters that captioned “He will return!” or
“Vive l’Empereur!.[33]
His
propaganda techniques were so successful in creating his imperial image that it
became even stronger after his death. Books of all sorts started being
published about him, praising or attacking, and people from all over France
came to the funeral service when his remains passed under the Arc de Triumph
and to his specially made tomb.
His final
downfall was not caused by lack of of good propaganda, military support, or
public support, but because he was out numbered and outsmarted on the
battlefield. Although his troops did desert him in Russia, it was because of
lack of food and warmth, rather than hatred for their General overall. It is
doubtful that Napoleon regretted his propagandist moves. He knew it was all
necessary. “If I had a free press”, he
wrote, “I wouldn’t last more than three months!”[34]
It is almost impossible that Napoleon would have made it as far as he did
without his propaganda campaign.
Throughout
his reign as Emperor of France, Napoleon Bonaparte influenced and controlled
the minds of his population through propaganda. Because he used every modern
means of media in his campaign, Napoleon is known as one of the greatest
propagandists in history. The number of supporters he gained through his
campaign was unbelievable and the control he maintained throughout his reign
was impressive. Through the press, paintings, theatre, and bulletins, Napoleon
created a culture and empire that would not soon be forgotten.
[1] Jowett,
Garth S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda
and Persuasion. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006 pp.7
[2] Forrest,
Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimization of Power in Napoleonic
France." French History. no. 4. 2004: 426-445.
[3] Forrest,
Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimization of Power in Napoleonic
France." French History. no. 4. 2004: 426-445.
[4] Crook,
Malcolm. Napoleon Comes to Power: Democracy and Dictatorship in
Revolutionary France, 1795-1804, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998.
pp. 50
[5] Taylor, Philip M. Munitions of the
Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day.
Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003. pp. 153.
[6] Welsh, William E. "Napoleon Bonaparte's
Coronation 200 Years Ago Split His Life Into Two Separate Chapters." Military
History 21.5 (2004): 10-16. Academic Search Premier. Web.
4 Nov. 2013. pp. 12.
[7] Forrest, Alan. "Propaganda and the
Legitimization of Power in Napoleonic France." French History.
no. 4. 2004: 426-445.
[8] Jowett, Garth S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda and Persuasion. London: SAGE
Publications Ltd., 2006 pp. 86.
[9] Crook, Malcolm. Napoleon Comes to
Power: Democracy and Dictatorship in Revolutionary France, 1795-1804, Cardiff:
University of Wales Press, 1998. pp. 125.
[10] Crook,
Malcolm. Napoleon Comes to Power:
Democracy and Dictatorship in Revolutionary France, 1795-1804, Cardiff: University
of Wales Press, 1998.. pp. 126.
[11] Forrest,
Alan. "Propaganda and the Legitimization of Power in Napoleonic
France." French History. no. 4. 2004: 426-445.
[12] Hanley,
Wayne. Columbia University Press, "The Genesis of Napoleonic
Propaganda:1796-1799." Accessed November 9, 2013
[13] Taylor,
Philip M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the
Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2003. pp. 155.
[14] Holtman,
Robert B. Napoleonic Propaganda. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 1950. pp. 145-146
[15] Holtman,
Robert B. Napoleonic Propaganda. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 1950. pp.165
[16] Taylor,
Philip M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the
Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2003. pp. 155
[17] Hanley,
Wayne. Columbia University Press, "The Genesis of Napoleonic
Propaganda:1796-1799." Accessed November 9, 2013
[18] Hanley,
Wayne. Columbia University Press, "The Genesis of Napoleonic
Propaganda:1796-1799."
[19] Hanley,
Wayne. Columbia University Press, "The Genesis of Napoleonic
Propaganda:1796-1799."
[20] Taylor,
Philip M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the Ancient
World to the Present Day. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003. pp.
154.
[21] Jowett,
Garth S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda
and Persuasion. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006. pp.86
[22] O'Brien,
David. After the Revolution: Antoine-Jean Gros, Painting, and
Propaganda Under Napoleon. University Park, PA: Penn State University
Press, 2006. pp. 9.
[23] Jowett,
Garth S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda
and Persuasion. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006. pp. 86.
[24] Cavendish,
Richard. "Napoleon Is Crowned Emperor Of The French." History
Today 54.12. 2004: 52. Academic Search Premier. Web.
[25] Jowett,
Garth S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda
and Persuasion. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006. pp. 87.
[26] Jowett, Garth
S. & O’Donnell, Victoria. Propaganda
and Persuasion. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2006. pp. 270.
[27] Taylor,
Philip M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the
Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2003. pp. 153.
[28] Holtman,
Robert B. Napoleonic Propaganda. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State
University Press, 1950. pp.177-178
[29] Crook,
Malcolm. Napoleon Comes to Power: Democracy and Dictatorship in
Revolutionary France, 1795-1804, Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998. pp.
95.
[30] Bernevig,
Bogdan Andrei. Stamford University, "Anti-Napoleon Caricature and
Propaganda in England 1798-1803." Last modified May 2000.
[32] D.M.G.
Sutherland, France 1789-1815 Revolution and Counterrevolution, London:
Fontana Paperbacks, 1985. pp. 331
[33] D.M.G.
Sutherland, France 1789-1815 Revolution and Counterrevolution, London:
Fontana Paperbacks, 1985. pp. 431
[34] Taylor,
Philip M. Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda from the
Ancient World to the Present Day. Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2003. pp. 155.
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